The media and the construction of body image

The influence of the media in general can be seen in studies carried out worldwide by authors such as M Mccabe and Ricciardelli (2005), or Skemp-Arlt, Rees, Mikat, and Seebach (2006), which show that half of children between 5 and 12 years of age are dissatisfied with their physical appearance. As Mccabe et al. (2019), Mancilla, Vázquez, Mancilla, Amaya, and Álvarez (2012), Skemp-Arlt et al. (2006), M Mccabe and Ricciardelli (2005), Phares, Steinberg, and Thompson (2004), Davison, Markey, and Birch (2003),Hendy, Gustitus, and Leitzel-Schwalm (2001) orAbramovitz and Birch (2000) state, around 40-50% of children aged 6-12 years feel dissatisfied with their physical appearance. In fact, scientific evidence (Jans, Sompel, Hudders, & Cauberghe, 2019) shows that this dissatisfaction affects both genders, but the type of distortion differs by gender. Typically, girls desire a slimmer body, while boys desire a more muscular physique with minimal body fat. Therefore, we need to pay close attention to these gender differences if we want to develop specific body image content (Bird, Halliwell, Diedrichs, Ph, & Harcourt, 2013; Frederick, Peplaua, & Leverd, 2005).

In this sense, it can be affirmed that minors are the social group most sensitive to the negative consequences of the media (Charry, 2014), being, to a large extent, dependent on the consumer market (Intef, 2005). Thus, numerous studies consider that reducing exposure to media content, especially children's advertising (Folkvord, Anschütz, Boyland, Kelly, & Buijzen, 2016; Matthes & Naderer, 2015; Smith, Kelly, Yeatman, & Boyland, 2019), is beneficial for girls and boys, for their physical and mental health. Moreover, much of the research on body image disorders points directly to the media as a producer of physical stereotypes and thus, among others, the manifestation of eating disorders (Botta, 1999; Hamilton & Waller, 1993; Harrison & Cantor, 1997; Myers & Biocca, 1992; Stice, Schupak-Neuberg, Shaw, & Stein, 1994). Therefore, it is emphasised that minors have fewer cognitive resources to correctly decode the messages received by the media ( ; Fernández & Díaz, 2014;) (Kapferer, 1995; Mclean, Paxton, & Wertheim, 2013; Unnikrishnan & Bajpai, 1996).

According to the Social Learning Theory, through exposure to media content related to social attractiveness, the person (children and adolescents in particular) learns which models of physical appearance are socially rewarded, the social expectations of what is considered beautiful versus what is considered ugly, and the consequences of not being attractive. Cultivation Theory (Gerbner, 1998) asserts that social reality is shaped by extensive and cumulative exposure to media messages. This theoretical model assumes that individuals develop beliefs, attitudes and expectations about the real world based on what they see and hear on television, video, movies, magazines, etc. Subsequently, they will use these beliefs, attitudes and expectations to make decisions and adopt behaviours in real-world situations. Thus, within the framework of a study on body image and media content, Cultivation Theory posits that media messages are agents of socialisation about the concepts of male and female beauty and other aspects of body image. This is particularly true for children's audiences, given that children's programming uses messages that bring into play strong emotional attachments.

Parallel to these stereotypes, the same media launch other types of contradictory messages, often promoting unhealthy or high-fat and high-sugar behaviours and products during children's programming. That is: ultra-processed food products, reward culture as a reward for eating a large amount of food, etc. This issue is highly surprising as there are, in fact, two sections completely differentiated by media strategies: content showing children happy thanks to the consumption of sugars and fats in the form of pastries, sweets or fast food, as opposed to content showing happy, slim adults, basically at the mercy of low-calorie food consumption. This dichotomy ends up influencing children who, at an early age, reject their body image and start restrictive diets that can lead to eating disorders (Jiménez-Morales, 2006). On a theoretical level, the European Union's 'Television without Frontiers' directive (89/552/EEC and amendment 97/36/EC) specifies that "television advertising shall not cause moral or physical harm to minors" (art.1) and provides that member states shall monitor television broadcasts so that they do not include any programmes "which might seriously impair the physical, mental or moral development of minors" (art. 22). Accordingly, both television programming and advertising content should avoid depicting unhealthy lifestyle behaviours and patterns of beauty.

The PAOS Code

The current situation has brought with it strategies to prevent childhood obesity and eating disorder-related illnesses, as well as the strengthening of tactics to help increase healthy lifestyles. However, regulations aimed at prevention are rather limited, both in the United States and in Europe, the geographical areas of reference on this issue. In both territories there is some regulation, but it is quite relaxed in relation to compliance with their codes for broadcasting images in the media and promoting other healthy lifestyle initiatives.

Following Sánchez (2016), we observe that, in order to promote healthier habits, different strategies have been implemented, such as reducing taxes for families participating in sports activities (Canada) or the use of levies and quotas to discourage unhealthy behaviour in employees who exceed certain waist circumference levels (Japan). Initiatives have also been promoted to increase the variety and quality of fruit and vegetable consumption (USA or UK) or the regulation of access to foods and beverages high in fat, sugar or salt in schools and the control and regulation of food and beverage advertising by self-regulatory codes (Spain) or specific regulations to influence food and beverage purchasing decisions such as specific labelling with traffic light colours (UK), etc. and very few companies comply with such regulations correctly. This shows that self-regulation itself is not effective and that other measures should be taken to ensure that minors are truly protected from abusive campaigns by advertisers, such as the adoption of a bylaw system using a nutrient profiling model to restrict exposure of unhealthy products or imposing a legal ban on any type of food and drink advertising aimed at minors.

At the European level, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) is an independent body charged with advising governments on the existence of food risks and emerging epidemics or pandemics. Its objective is to protect public safety through actions such as the promotion of scientific research, advice, dissemination and the development of actions on food safety.

In the case of Spain, the Spanish Agency for Consumer Affairs, Food Safety and Nutrition (AECOSAN) provides co-regulatory support to the EFSA. Attached to the Ministry of Health, Consumer Affairs and Equality, its main tool is the Code for the Co-regulation of Food and Drink Advertising Aimed at Minors, Prevention of Obesity and Health (PAOS Code), framed within the overall state strategy for social welfare of the Spanish Government, a provision that affects children in the promotion of a healthy lifestyle and diet.

The PAOS Code was reinforced in 2009 through a collaboration agreement with the main television operators in Spain so that broadcasters undertook to require that food and drink advertisements aimed at children under the age of 12 (or broadcast in enhanced child protection slots) comply with the standards set out in the PAOS Code. In 2012 the Ministry of Health, Social Services and Equality and AECOSAN had to sign up to a new PAOS Code, where the Spanish Federation of Food and Drink Industries (FIAB), the Association for the Self-Regulation of Commercial Communication (Autocontrol de la publicidad), the distribution sector (ANGED, ASEDAS and ACES), the hotel and catering industry (FEHR) and the restaurant industry (FEHRCAREM) joined in.

This update of the PAOS Code had the effect that the code now also applies to advertising broadcast on the internet and on mobile devices, which are where children's audiences have been growing the most in recent years (Infoadex, 2019). Similarly, the age of application is extended to 15 years.

A study conducted between 2008 and 2012 showed non-compliance with the PAOS code increasing from 50% in 2008 to 88.2% in 2012. In the enhanced protection band, non-compliance with the code rose from 43% to 86%.

And it is this aspect that prevails in this research: the use of personalities known to children, celebrities or known to them, in which this non-compliance has increased the most, rising from 5.4% to 25% (León-Flandez et al., 2012). In a study carried out by Hastings et al. in 2003, it could be seen how advertisements were inserted within the children's time slot and that they used unconventional advertising techniques such as sponsorship, handing out samples or gifts when buying products, such as toys, for example. Subsequently, the EU's own research showed that children who did not watch TV at lunchtime were less likely to be overweight than those who did (Vik et al., 2013).

Multimedia groups have also become aware of children's health issues and some conglomerates, such as A3Media (in the case of Spain), ran a campaign called 'El Estirón' in 2012 that targeted children with childhood obesity. The campaign consisted of advertisements on the channels: Antena 3, Neox, Nova and Nitro and on the radio stations Onda Cero and Europa FM. Some famous personalities participated in the campaign and gave advice on how to lead a healthy life. In our opinion, as it was an isolated action and without a public, political, social and family context that reinforced it, the possible positive consequences of this action were dissolved.

Use of mobile devices by minors

Certain direct links can be established between the stereotypes portrayed by advertising, on the one hand, and the ability of advertising to influence society, on the other. And, more specifically, in the ability to influence children, who are highly susceptible to being persuaded by such influences. As a result: a high dissatisfaction of girls and boys with their bodies. As a consequence of this result: physical and psychological disorders.

Today we have a wide variety of permanently connected content, and devices capable of supporting it (Perez, 2008). They are accessible anywhere and at any time, through different platforms.

Today, it can be seen that among children under fifteen years of age, the most widely consumed medium is television, a conventional medium, whose content is viewed during their leisure time.

In fact, "in front of the new idealised, loved, envied, but also feared digital spaces, there is the permanent figure of television, which remains firmly in the collective imagination as the familiar space of leisure" (Gewerc et al., 2017, p. 178). However, immediately afterwards, we find that the second most consumed media by minors is the internet, mainly via smartphones (Infoadex, 2019), with no consumption of the press or conventional radio being detected among this type of audience (Navarro, González, Massana, García, & Contreras, 2012). As they are digital natives, the Internet is present in their daily lives.

In the specific case of under-12s, television competes, on a large scale, with the smartphone, and not so much with the desktop and laptop which, for this age group, is being relegated to the background. From the age of 12 onwards, values change (Infoadex, 2019). In fact, the penetration level of mobile devices at the age of 9-12 reaches a relative value of 72.7%, according to data from AIMC (2017). This percentage increases if we widen the age range. In this sense,Bringué and Sádaba (2011) report that the mobile terminal reaches percentages of 83% in children over the age of 10.

We are, therefore, faced with a generation that has taken over the communicative culture based on the use of digital and mobile technologies, which are increasingly more accessible and universal (Brigué & Sábada, 2011). They have access to all types of screens, with a large percentage having regular access to the Internet.

Results of the content analysis

During the 7 days that the sample collection took place (11 hours per day), a total of 77 hours were counted where a total of 314 advertisements directly targeted at children were found. Of these, 73 were food or drink advertisements.

Of the 73 advertisements that made up the total sample directly related to the object of study, 22 were the total advertisers. Thus, the brands responsible for this advertising were (in order of appearance): 1) Teddy Bears; 2) Babybel; 3) Fanta; 4) Danone; 5) Danonino; 6) The Laughing Cow; 7) Prince Cookies; 8) Chips Ahoy; 9) Choco Flakes; 10) Haribo; 11) Caffeine-free Coke; 12) Danup; 13) Telepizza; 14) Hero baby; 15) McDonalds; 16) Donuts; 17) Burger King; 18) Tosta Rica; 19) Puleva; 20) Oceanix; 21) Dinosaurus; and 22) Sunny Delight.

Assessing the level of compliance with the PAOS code, and although we represent it graphically in the following table, the summary is very basic: None of these brands complies with the PAOS code at 100%. This is shown in table 1:

Source: Own elaboration (2019)

Survey results

A brief survey was administered to record the level of recall and recognition (Sánchez, 1999) of brands, products and advertising content, in order to analyse the possible advertising effectiveness. In this sense, the children surveyed were asked if they had visited any of the social networks, applications or portals referred to (Musical.ly, Snapchat, YouTube, Instagram and BabyTV App) in the last 7 days. Out of the total of 617 respondents, 524 had seen any of the marked apps and, consequently, the advertising inserted in them.

The survey was answered by 209 children under 12 years of age (with informed consent from parents and carers) and 315 adults, all parents.

Among the most relevant data, the following stand out:

• All 209 children and 315 adults recognised the advertising brands perfectly when shown the packaging or the brand was mentioned to them.

• Of the total number of respondents, 24.04% remembered the brand or product without prior external stimulus. Specifically, the breakdown was as follows:

• 73 out of 209 minors (34.92% of minors.

• 53 out of 315 adults (17.09% of adults).

• In relation to purchase intention, 100% of the 209 children expressed their desire to eat or drink any of the foods or drinks shown in the advertisement; however, when the same question is answered by parents, the percentage drops significantly, giving data such as that of the 315 adults, only 14 (4.44%) had no intention of buying or consuming any of the products shown. This may be logical insofar as the level of educational attainment is much higher; however, what is striking about the data is that, apart from these 14 respondents, 198 (62.85%) made some of the categories coded as "uncertain" their first choice for purchase, consumption or ingestion, as opposed to those coded as "non-conforming".

The brands most highly rated by parents are, in order:

Results of the focus group

In relation to the amount of time children spend in front of media, all eight people at the table admitted that children spend too much time in front of technologies; however, when asked to quantify how much time they considered appropriate for children to spend in front of a smartphone, the answers varied considerably. Thus, compared to "10 minutes a day", in the case of R. O. J., mother of two girls, aged 7 and 9 respectively, we found "2 hours maximum", which was answered by the father of two children, a girl aged 5 and a boy aged 6. In between these bands, there were intermediate answers that were more in favour of moderation "without counting the minutes exactly", and "being aware that exposure to mobiles is there and we cannot avoid it". Or answers such as "I don't get along very well and I don't like it, but a little time to let me breathe doesn't hurt either of us".

In any case, we establish one of the central points of importance of all the answers in the fact that parents, when referring to the time that minors spend with a device, do so alone, and not accompanied by a parent.

In this sense, and referring to the next block, all the participants in the focus group were aware that minors receive advertising impacts, but in all cases, the impacts received were thought to be minor. Thus, when it was stated that during one week an average of more than 300 impacts were received, some of the immediate comments were along the lines of "from now on I won't leave my mobile phone with them" or "I had no idea of such an amount". But, in addition to this, knowing that 73 advertisements were directly influencing their children's diet, the reactions were diverse: Thus, 7 of the people in the focus group understood that it was normal and that it was not about foods particularly harmful to health, with some specific incidence: "Coca Cola is not very good... but without caffeine, drinking it once a week does not seem very bad to me". Or "Yoghurts are very good, it has always been said". The truth is that only 3 of the participants questioned the ingredients, the amounts of sugars, colourings and preservatives, as well as the concept of healthy eating as a basis.

As a final result of the approach, 4 of the participants admitted that they bought many food products due to pressure and incitements from their children, even when they did not agree. And even in one case:

One time you say no, another time too. But when the biscuit comes with the Paw Patrol, and your kids see it over and over again in advertising, how do you tell them you won't buy it for breakfast? Besides, they don't even want to see the fruit. And if they go to school on an empty stomach, or if they go to school with the biscuits, then the Paw Patrol!

In all 10 cases they admitted that many of the food products they bought were made directly through advertising (either the original brand or a substitute private label) or at the express request of their children who, on many occasions, "of course, see it in advertising and then ask you". In this sense, the fourth objective is achieved by approaching the influence of advertising of children's food products on the purchase intention of the interviewees after observing the advertising.