The Effectiveness of the Use of Fear as a Persuasive Factor in Risk Communications During Health Crises
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.35669/revistadecomunicacionysalud.2011.1(2).33-46Keywords:
crisis communication; health communication; risk communication; fear; persuasionAbstract
When a health crisis arises, administrations must tell citizens about the risks to which
they will likely be exposed to. This `risk communication´ is based on disseminating
messages which will help people to learn about the origins of the crisis, its threats, the
level of alert and measures to be taken in order to minimize damages, and is frequently
based on appealing to a sense of fear as a persuasive factor through which to convince
people to act in the manner requested. This article analyzes studies on how the these
appeals to a sense of fear influence people, suggesting a series of recommendations
which will allow these messages to be as effective as possible, therefore contributing
to the better management of health crises.
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References
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Aristóteles (1985). Retórica. Madrid: Centros de Estudios Constitucionales.
Argo, Jennifer J. y Main, Kelley J. (2004). Meta-analysis of the effectiveness of warning labels. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing. Vol. 23, nº 2, pp. 193-208. doi: 10.1509/jppm.23.2.193.51400
Arroyo, Luis y Yus, Magali (2007). Los cien errores de la comunicación de las organizaciones. Madrid: ESIC.
Baylon, Christian y Mignot, Xavier (1996). La comunicacion. Madrid: Cátedra.
Beck, Kenneth H. y Davis, Clive M. (1978). Effects of fear-arousing communications and topic importance on attitude change. Journal of Social Psychology.Nº 104, pp. 81-85. doi: 10.1080/00224545.1978.9924040
Boster, Franklin J. y Mongeau, Paul A. (1984). Fear-arousing persuasive messages. En Bostrom, Robert N. (ed.). Communication yearbook 8. Beverly Hills: Sage, pp. 330-375.
Burgoon, Michael; Jones, S.B. y Stewart, D. (1975). Toward a message-centered theory of persuasion: three empirical investigations of language intensity.Human Communication Research. Nº 1, pp. 240-256. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2958.1975.tb00271.x
Cebrià Andreu, J.; Palma Sevillano, C.; Gutiérrez Blanch, I.; Ferrer Ventura, M.; Ger Cabero, S. y Doménech
Cortés, M. (2005). Estudio del grado de aprensión social en usuarios de atención primaria: su relación con la ansiedad. Atención Primaria. Vol. 36, nº 5, pp. 254-260.
Cho, Hyunyi y Witte, Kim (2004). A review of fear appeal effects. En Gass, Robert H. y Seiter, John S. (eds.). Perspectives on persuasion, social influence, and compliance gaining. Boston: Pearson, pp. 223- 238.
Collins, Sandra D. (2009). Persuasion. Mason: Cengage Learning.
Dillard, James P. (1994). Rethinking the study of fear appeals. Communication Theory. Nº 4, noviembre, pp. 295-323. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2885.1994.tb00094.x
Dillard, James P. y Anderson, Jason W. (2004). The role of fear in persuasión. Psychology & Marketing. Nº 21, pp. 909-926. doi: 10.1002/mar.20041
González Herrero, Adolfo (1998). Marketing preventivo: la comunicación de crisis en la empresa. Barcelona: Bosch.
Gordon, George N. (1971). Persuasion: the theory and practice of manipulative communication. Nueva York: Hastings House.
Hansen, R. y Scott, C.A. (1976). Comments on attribution theory and advertiser credibility. Journal of Marketing Research. Vol. 13, pp. 193-207. doi: 10.2307/3150858
Henley, N. y Donovan, R.J. (2003). Young people’s response to death threat appeals: do they really feel immortal? Health Education Research. Vol. 18, nº 1, pp. 1-14. doi: 10.1093/her/18.1.1
Hewgill, Murray A. y Miller, Gerald R. (1965). Source credibility and response to fear-arousing communication. Speech Monographs. Nº 32, pp. 95-101.
Higbee, Kenneth L. (1969). Fifteen years of fear arousal: research on threat appeals 1953-1968. Psychological Bulletin. Vol. 72, nº 6, pp. 426-444. doi: 10.1037/h0028430
Hovland, Carl I.; Janis, Irving L. y Kelley, Harold H. (1953). Communication and persuasion. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Janis, Irving L. (1967). Effects of fear arousal on attitude change: recent developments in theory and experimental research. En Berkowitz, Leonard (ed.). Advances in experimental social psychology. Nueva York: Academic Press. Vol. 3, pp. 166-225.
Janis, Irving L. y Feshbach, Seymour (1953). Effects of fear arousing communications. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. Nº 48, pp. 78-92. doi: 10.1037/h0060732
Leventhal, Herbert (1970). Findings and theory in the study of fear communications. En Berkowitz, Leonard (ed.). Advances in experimental social psychology.Nueva York: Academic Press. Vol. 5, pp. 119-186.
López-Quesada, M. (2003). ¡Estamos en crisis!Madrid: Dossat.
López Quintás, Alfonso (1998). La revolución oculta: manipulación del lenguaje y subversión de valores. Madrid: PPC.
Losada Díaz, José Carlos (2010). Comunicación en la gestión de crisis. Barcelona: UOC.
Marín, Francisco (2005). Gestión técnica y de la comunicación en situaciones especiales: crisis, emergencias y negociación. Madrid: Fragua.
Marín, Francisco (2009). Comunicación de crisis. Madrid: Acción Empresarial.
Martínez Segura, Pablo (2006). Crisis sanitarias y medios de comunicación. Revista de Administración Sanitaria. Vol. 4, nº 3, pp. 437-438.
Martínez Solana, Yolanda (2004). La crisis de las ‘vacas locas’ en España: la necesidad de una información sanitaria responsable. Estudios sobre el Mensaje Periodístico. Nº 10, pp. 139-158.
McGuire, William J. (1964). Inducing resistance to persuasion: some contemporary approaches. En Berkowitz, Leonard (ed.). Advances in experimental social psychology. Nueva York: Academic Press. Vol. 1, pp. 191-229.
McGuire, William J. (1968). Personality and attitude change: an information processing theory. En Greenwald, Anthony G.; Brock, Timothy C. y Ostrom, Thomas M. (eds.). Psychological foundations of attitudes. Nueva York: Academic Press, pp. 171-196.
McGuire, William J. (1969). The nature of attitudes and attitude change. En Lindzey, Gardner y Aronson, Elliot (eds.). Handbook of social psychology. Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. Vol. 3, pp. 136-314.
McGuire, William J. (1973). Persuasion, resistance and attitude change. En Pool, Ithiel de Sola; Frey, Frederick W.; Schramm, Wilbur y Parker, Edwin B. (eds.). Handbook of communication. Chicago: Rand Mc Nally, pp. 253-289.
Mongeau, Paul A. (1998). Another look at fear-arousing persuasive appeals. En Allen, Mike y Preiss, Raymond W. (eds.). Persuasion: advances through meta-analysis. Cresskill: Hampton Press, pp. 53-68.
Pratkanis, Anthony y Aronson, Elliot (1994). La era de la propaganda: uso y abuso de la persuasión. Barcelona: Paidós.
Quinn, Valerie; Meenaghan, Tony y Brannick, Teresa (1992). Fear appeals: segmentation is the way to go. International Journal of Advertising. Vol. 11, nº 4, pp. 355-367.
Rodríguez Andrés, Roberto y Ureña, Daniel (2008). Los gabinetes de prensa de instituciones políticas como configuradores de la agenda mediática. En Jurado Martín, Montserrat y Carvajal Prieto, Miguel (eds.). La arquitectura de la información. Murcia: DM, pp. 177-186.
Rogers, R.W. (1975). A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. Journal of Psychology. Nº 91, pp. 93-114. doi: 10.1080/00223980.1975.9915803
Rogers, R.W. (1983). Cognitive and physiological processes in fear appeals and attitude change: a revised theory of protection motivation. En Cacioppo, John T. y Petty, Richard E. (eds.). Social psychophysiology: a sourcebook.Nueva York: Guilford Press, pp. 153-176.
Rogers, R.W. (1985). Attitude change and information integration in fear appeals. Psychological Reports, Nº 56, pp. 179-182. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1985.56.1.179
Rogers, R.W. y Prentice-Dunn, S. (1997). Protection motivation theory. En Gochman, D.S. (ed.). Handbook of Health Behavior Research. Nueva York: Plenum Press. Vol. 1, pp. 113-132.
Ross, Raymond S. (1978). Persuasión: comunicación y relaciones interpersonales.México: Editorial Trillas.
Rotfeld, Herbert J. (1988). Fear appeals and persuasion: assumptions and errors in advertising research. Current Issues & Research in Advertising. Vol. 11, nº 1, pp. 21-40.
Salcedo Fernández, Antonio (2008). Anatomía de la persuasión. Madrid: Esic.
Saura, Pilar (2005). La gestión y la comunicación de crisis en el sector de alimentación y bebidas.Madrid: Universidad Pontificia de Comillas.
Seeger, Matthew W. y Sellnow, Timothy L. (2007). Crisis communication and the public health. Cresskill: Hampton Press.
Sutton, Stephen R. (1982). Fear-arousing communications: a critical examination of theory and research. En Eiser, J. Richard (ed.). Social psychology and behavioural medicine. Londres: Wiley, pp. 303-337.
Sternthal, B. y Craig, C.S. (1974). Fear appeals: revised and revisited. Journal of Consumer Research. Vol. 1, nº 3, pp. 22-34. doi: 10.1086/208597
Sternthal, B.; Phillips, L.W. y Dholakia, R. (1978). The persuasive effect of source credibility: a situational analysis. Public Opinion Quarterly. Vol. 42, nº 3, p. 285-314. doi: 10.1086/268454
Stiff, James B. (1994). Persuasive communication. Nueva York: The Guilford Press.
Sutton, Stephen R. (1982). Fear-arousing communications: a critical examination of theory and research. En Eiser, J. R. (ed.). Social Psychology and Behavioral Medicine.Chichester: Wiley, pp. 303-337.
Valera, Carmen (2008). Cómo gestionar el miedo y limitar sus consecuencias. Revista de Comunicación, Nº 6, pp. 50-52.
Wiener, J.L. y Mowen, J.C. (1986). Source credibility: on the independent effects of trust and expertise. Advances in Consumer Research. Vol. 13, nº 1, pp. 306-310.
Witte, Kim (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: the extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs. Nº 59, diciembre, pp. 329-349. doi: 10.1080/03637759209376276
Witte, Kim (1994). Fear control and danger control: an empirical test of the extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs. Vol. 61, pp. 113-134. doi: 10.1080/03637759409376328
Witte, Kim (1998). Fear as motivator, fear as inhibitor: using the extended parallel process model to explain fear appeals successes and failures. En Andersen, P.A. y Guerrero, L.K. (eds.). Handbook of communication and emotion: research, theory, applications, and contexts. San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 423-450.
Witte, Kim y Allen, Mike (2000). A meta-analysis of fear appeals: implications for effective public health campaigns. Health Education & Behavior. Vol. 27, nº 5, pp. 591-615. doi: 10.1177/109019810002700506
Alcat, Enrique (2005). Y ahora ¿qué?: cómo gestionar una crisis y salir fortalecido. Barcelona: Empresa Activa.
Alcat, Enrique (2009). Seis recetas para superar la crisis. Barcelona: Alienta.
Altheide, D. (2002). Creating fear: news and the construction of crisis.Nueva York: Aldine Gruyter.
Aristóteles (1985). Retórica. Madrid: Centros de Estudios Constitucionales.
Argo, Jennifer J. y Main, Kelley J. (2004). Meta-analysis of the effectiveness of warning labels. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing. Vol. 23, nº 2, pp. 193-208. doi: 10.1509/jppm.23.2.193.51400
Arroyo, Luis y Yus, Magali (2007). Los cien errores de la comunicación de las organizaciones. Madrid: ESIC.
Baylon, Christian y Mignot, Xavier (1996). La comunicacion. Madrid: Cátedra.
Beck, Kenneth H. y Davis, Clive M. (1978). Effects of fear-arousing communications and topic importance on attitude change. Journal of Social Psychology.Nº 104, pp. 81-85. doi: 10.1080/00224545.1978.9924040
Boster, Franklin J. y Mongeau, Paul A. (1984). Fear-arousing persuasive messages. En Bostrom, Robert N. (ed.). Communication yearbook 8. Beverly Hills: Sage, pp. 330-375.
Burgoon, Michael; Jones, S.B. y Stewart, D. (1975). Toward a message-centered theory of persuasion: three empirical investigations of language intensity.Human Communication Research. Nº 1, pp. 240-256. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2958.1975.tb00271.x
Cebrià Andreu, J.; Palma Sevillano, C.; Gutiérrez Blanch, I.; Ferrer Ventura, M.; Ger Cabero, S. y Doménech
Cortés, M. (2005). Estudio del grado de aprensión social en usuarios de atención primaria: su relación con la ansiedad. Atención Primaria. Vol. 36, nº 5, pp. 254-260.
Cho, Hyunyi y Witte, Kim (2004). A review of fear appeal effects. En Gass, Robert H. y Seiter, John S. (eds.). Perspectives on persuasion, social influence, and compliance gaining. Boston: Pearson, pp. 223- 238.
Collins, Sandra D. (2009). Persuasion. Mason: Cengage Learning.
Dillard, James P. (1994). Rethinking the study of fear appeals. Communication Theory. Nº 4, noviembre, pp. 295-323. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2885.1994.tb00094.x
Dillard, James P. y Anderson, Jason W. (2004). The role of fear in persuasión. Psychology & Marketing. Nº 21, pp. 909-926. doi: 10.1002/mar.20041
González Herrero, Adolfo (1998). Marketing preventivo: la comunicación de crisis en la empresa. Barcelona: Bosch.
Gordon, George N. (1971). Persuasion: the theory and practice of manipulative communication. Nueva York: Hastings House.
Hansen, R. y Scott, C.A. (1976). Comments on attribution theory and advertiser credibility. Journal of Marketing Research. Vol. 13, pp. 193-207. doi: 10.2307/3150858
Henley, N. y Donovan, R.J. (2003). Young people’s response to death threat appeals: do they really feel immortal? Health Education Research. Vol. 18, nº 1, pp. 1-14. doi: 10.1093/her/18.1.1
Hewgill, Murray A. y Miller, Gerald R. (1965). Source credibility and response to fear-arousing communication. Speech Monographs. Nº 32, pp. 95-101.
Higbee, Kenneth L. (1969). Fifteen years of fear arousal: research on threat appeals 1953-1968. Psychological Bulletin. Vol. 72, nº 6, pp. 426-444. doi: 10.1037/h0028430
Hovland, Carl I.; Janis, Irving L. y Kelley, Harold H. (1953). Communication and persuasion. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Janis, Irving L. (1967). Effects of fear arousal on attitude change: recent developments in theory and experimental research. En Berkowitz, Leonard (ed.). Advances in experimental social psychology. Nueva York: Academic Press. Vol. 3, pp. 166-225.
Janis, Irving L. y Feshbach, Seymour (1953). Effects of fear arousing communications. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. Nº 48, pp. 78-92. doi: 10.1037/h0060732
Leventhal, Herbert (1970). Findings and theory in the study of fear communications. En Berkowitz, Leonard (ed.). Advances in experimental social psychology.Nueva York: Academic Press. Vol. 5, pp. 119-186.
López-Quesada, M. (2003). ¡Estamos en crisis!Madrid: Dossat.
López Quintás, Alfonso (1998). La revolución oculta: manipulación del lenguaje y subversión de valores. Madrid: PPC.
Losada Díaz, José Carlos (2010). Comunicación en la gestión de crisis. Barcelona: UOC.
Marín, Francisco (2005). Gestión técnica y de la comunicación en situaciones especiales: crisis, emergencias y negociación. Madrid: Fragua.
Marín, Francisco (2009). Comunicación de crisis. Madrid: Acción Empresarial.
Martínez Segura, Pablo (2006). Crisis sanitarias y medios de comunicación. Revista de Administración Sanitaria. Vol. 4, nº 3, pp. 437-438.
Martínez Solana, Yolanda (2004). La crisis de las ‘vacas locas’ en España: la necesidad de una información sanitaria responsable. Estudios sobre el Mensaje Periodístico. Nº 10, pp. 139-158.
McGuire, William J. (1964). Inducing resistance to persuasion: some contemporary approaches. En Berkowitz, Leonard (ed.). Advances in experimental social psychology. Nueva York: Academic Press. Vol. 1, pp. 191-229.
McGuire, William J. (1968). Personality and attitude change: an information processing theory. En Greenwald, Anthony G.; Brock, Timothy C. y Ostrom, Thomas M. (eds.). Psychological foundations of attitudes. Nueva York: Academic Press, pp. 171-196.
McGuire, William J. (1969). The nature of attitudes and attitude change. En Lindzey, Gardner y Aronson, Elliot (eds.). Handbook of social psychology. Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. Vol. 3, pp. 136-314.
McGuire, William J. (1973). Persuasion, resistance and attitude change. En Pool, Ithiel de Sola; Frey, Frederick W.; Schramm, Wilbur y Parker, Edwin B. (eds.). Handbook of communication. Chicago: Rand Mc Nally, pp. 253-289.
Mongeau, Paul A. (1998). Another look at fear-arousing persuasive appeals. En Allen, Mike y Preiss, Raymond W. (eds.). Persuasion: advances through meta-analysis. Cresskill: Hampton Press, pp. 53-68.
Pratkanis, Anthony y Aronson, Elliot (1994). La era de la propaganda: uso y abuso de la persuasión. Barcelona: Paidós.
Quinn, Valerie; Meenaghan, Tony y Brannick, Teresa (1992). Fear appeals: segmentation is the way to go. International Journal of Advertising. Vol. 11, nº 4, pp. 355-367.
Rodríguez Andrés, Roberto y Ureña, Daniel (2008). Los gabinetes de prensa de instituciones políticas como configuradores de la agenda mediática. En Jurado Martín, Montserrat y Carvajal Prieto, Miguel (eds.). La arquitectura de la información. Murcia: DM, pp. 177-186.
Rogers, R.W. (1975). A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. Journal of Psychology. Nº 91, pp. 93-114. doi: 10.1080/00223980.1975.9915803
Rogers, R.W. (1983). Cognitive and physiological processes in fear appeals and attitude change: a revised theory of protection motivation. En Cacioppo, John T. y Petty, Richard E. (eds.). Social psychophysiology: a sourcebook.Nueva York: Guilford Press, pp. 153-176.
Rogers, R.W. (1985). Attitude change and information integration in fear appeals. Psychological Reports, Nº 56, pp. 179-182. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1985.56.1.179
Rogers, R.W. y Prentice-Dunn, S. (1997). Protection motivation theory. En Gochman, D.S. (ed.). Handbook of Health Behavior Research. Nueva York: Plenum Press. Vol. 1, pp. 113-132.
Ross, Raymond S. (1978). Persuasión: comunicación y relaciones interpersonales.México: Editorial Trillas.
Rotfeld, Herbert J. (1988). Fear appeals and persuasion: assumptions and errors in advertising research. Current Issues & Research in Advertising. Vol. 11, nº 1, pp. 21-40.
Salcedo Fernández, Antonio (2008). Anatomía de la persuasión. Madrid: Esic.
Saura, Pilar (2005). La gestión y la comunicación de crisis en el sector de alimentación y bebidas.Madrid: Universidad Pontificia de Comillas.
Seeger, Matthew W. y Sellnow, Timothy L. (2007). Crisis communication and the public health. Cresskill: Hampton Press.
Sutton, Stephen R. (1982). Fear-arousing communications: a critical examination of theory and research. En Eiser, J. Richard (ed.). Social psychology and behavioural medicine. Londres: Wiley, pp. 303-337.
Sternthal, B. y Craig, C.S. (1974). Fear appeals: revised and revisited. Journal of Consumer Research. Vol. 1, nº 3, pp. 22-34. doi: 10.1086/208597
Sternthal, B.; Phillips, L.W. y Dholakia, R. (1978). The persuasive effect of source credibility: a situational analysis. Public Opinion Quarterly. Vol. 42, nº 3, p. 285-314. doi: 10.1086/268454
Stiff, James B. (1994). Persuasive communication. Nueva York: The Guilford Press.
Sutton, Stephen R. (1982). Fear-arousing communications: a critical examination of theory and research. En Eiser, J. R. (ed.). Social Psychology and Behavioral Medicine.Chichester: Wiley, pp. 303-337.
Valera, Carmen (2008). Cómo gestionar el miedo y limitar sus consecuencias. Revista de Comunicación, Nº 6, pp. 50-52.
Wiener, J.L. y Mowen, J.C. (1986). Source credibility: on the independent effects of trust and expertise. Advances in Consumer Research. Vol. 13, nº 1, pp. 306-310.
Witte, Kim (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: the extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs. Nº 59, diciembre, pp. 329-349. doi: 10.1080/03637759209376276
Witte, Kim (1994). Fear control and danger control: an empirical test of the extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs. Vol. 61, pp. 113-134. doi: 10.1080/03637759409376328
Witte, Kim (1998). Fear as motivator, fear as inhibitor: using the extended parallel process model to explain fear appeals successes and failures. En Andersen, P.A. y Guerrero, L.K. (eds.). Handbook of communication and emotion: research, theory, applications, and contexts. San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 423-450.
Witte, Kim y Allen, Mike (2000). A meta-analysis of fear appeals: implications for effective public health campaigns. Health Education & Behavior. Vol. 27, nº 5, pp. 591-615. doi: 10.1177/109019810002700506
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How to Cite
Rodríguez Andrés , R. . (2011). The Effectiveness of the Use of Fear as a Persuasive Factor in Risk Communications During Health Crises. Revista De Comunicación Y Salud, 1(2), 33–46. https://doi.org/10.35669/revistadecomunicacionysalud.2011.1(2).33-46
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